1Department of Commerce and Business Management, Faculty of Management Sciences, Lira University, and School of Women and Gender Studies, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Makerere University Kampala, Uganda. |
AbstractThis study explores the experiences of women about the levels of skills acquired by Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) -trained women and their ability to improve their financial status and well-being in Apac District, Northern-Uganda. This was a qualitative case study research design centering on the ability of 31 grassroots’ women and selected men who are family members to the women. The study was underpinned by agency principle from and Freire’s literacy theory and Kabeer’s socio-economic viewpoint which contend on the awareness or conscientisation by making marginalised non-literate women agents for social and economic development. The study established that reading, writing and numeracy skills contributed to consciousness about the skill of book-keeping by adult women which has played a significant part to improving their ability to participate in income generating activities. To conclude, Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (MoGLSD), NGO’s, international donors, as well as civil society organisations, must prioritise and render support in carrying out FAL training. |
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Received: 2 February 2022 |
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Funding: This research is supported by DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) (Grant number: 91560790). |
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. |
Acknowledgement: Appreciation goes to the District Community Development Office (DCDCO), Apac, for their support and cooperation, which provided us access to the interview sites, as well as to the participants who kindly contributed in interviews conducted for this study. |
1. Background
A person who is literate has the ability understand written words and sentences as well as write simple and written words and sentences. In addition, functional literacy lays emphasis on individual’s ability to change their economic lives due to his or her acquired literacy skills (UNESCO, 2006). As a result, FAL emphasises on the Functional literacy, therefore, lays emphasis on the application of the acquired skills to improve on the lives of individuals, whereas literate persons are measured by their reading and writing ability (MoGLSD, 2007). Many developing countries have therefore embraced the approach of training their citizens on knowledge and skills related to development. Therefore, Hasaba (2012), and Okech and Carr-Hill (2001) agree that the opportunity and as well as access adult literacy skills particularly by women is a panacea to their economic development.
Globally, three levels (basic; middle; advanced and self-learning) of FAL are recognised as components of basic FAL training (Khan, 2001; Olomukoro & Adelore, 2015). Rooted in the functional version of literacy which was revamped as well as supported by UNESCO, FAL programme in Uganda focusses on the areas, such as, health, agriculture, selling product in the market (Hasaba, 2012). These components of training programme to some extent echo the UNESCO’s pillars of education for international understanding.
Between 1983 and 1989, UNESCO spearheaded the introduction, promotion and co-financing of FAL training in Uganda (Hasaba, 2012; Okech & Carr-Hill, 2001). In addition, by early 1990s, the Government of Uganda under President Yoweri K. Museveni was rendering financial support of the FAL programmes fronted by UNESCO. The FAL programme was piloted in the districts of Apac, Hoima, Kabarole, Mbarara, Mukono, Iganga, Mpigi and Kamuli which registered high level of eagerness amongst communities where it was tested (Mabuya & Odedo, 2009). As a result, many classes commenced outside the pilot area. Therefore, the national adult literacy policy for FAL programme emphasises the integration of basic reading, writing and proficiency using practical skills to empower the adult trained individuals, particularly the marginalised women for improving their income and well-being (MoGLSD, 2015).
Even though many developing nations have aimed at educating their populace, globally, the statistics point out that while adult learning has previously remained the key agenda on social and economic development over the preceding years, the most recent literacy figures is indicative that, 0ut of 750 million adult person, women share 63% of non-literate population (UIS, 2017). In addition, the non-literate women continue to be seen handicapped socially and economically. According to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 which states that, it aims to: “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”, non-literacy disadvantages women’s economic development. Women’s non-literate status and insufficient capacity to acquire and comprehend important information has been linked with lower self-confidence and less involvement in economic activities (Kabeer, 2005). Likewise, there is a belief that women that are non-literate are faced with great technical limitations in managing economic endeavours.
Although development economists have for over a long period advocated a strong relation regarding adult literacy as well as economic development, reports by scholars and Uganda government Uganda as well as beyond point out that many women remain non-literate (UBOS, 2016). As a result, women’s non-literacy status continues to hinder their full potentiality and affect their involvement in economic development.
In order to reduce the imbalance among the large number of women without literacy skills, free FAL education has been introduced in the communities. Despite the fact that a significant number of women were involved in vocational training, little attention was paid to clarifying these problems with the levels of literacy skills acquired by FAL-trained women in Apac District. Therefore, this article unravels women’s level of literacy skills acquired under FAL as a means to effectively participate in improving their livelihoods.
1.1. Theoretical Underpinning
The theoretical arguments about this study are rooted in the agency theory which places women’s ability and active participation in competence and outstanding status in order to improve their status and life. Agency theory goes back to Freire (1970) literacy perspective and Kabeer (2005) perspective. Freire's literacy theory is based on the concept of agency and inclusion. In the acquisition of education, Freire emphasized decency as a teacher's deliberate effort to open the minds of learners and discover the world in which they live. Awareness is the process by which people recognize and understand their surroundings, especially the economic structure of the highest priority, such as the patriarchal system that oppresses women and pushes them to the limits (Freire, 1970). Kabeer's perspective also emphasizes the power of education and literacy to ignite women's agencies and social inclusion. Kabeer further argues that literate women must have the ability to question, analyse and challenge the patriarchal structure that reproduces their constraints and inequality.
2. Literature Review: An Overview
2.1. Literacy Levels: Beyond Reading, Writing and Numeracy
The contemporary focus of FAL is the attainment levels of literacy skills acquired that is relevant to one’s development. UNESCO has mainly categorised FAL skills in three levels as named below:
2.1.1. Level One-Basic Learning
This involves reading, writing as well as understanding vowels a, e, i, o, u; simple words and printed sentences. In addition, it includes, counting besides recognising figures 1-100.
2.1.2. Level Two-Proficiency Learning
This includes reading, comprehending newspapers, writing and demonstrating ability in computation of basic additions and subtractions, as well as integrating drama and songs in this level’s syllabus.
2.1.3. Level Three-Advanced Learning
According to Khan (2001), this level includes analysing and synthesising main ideas previously learnt at level II of FAL, constructing and reading one or two pages on topics such as income generating activities. Previous studies have reported that UNESCO’s adult literacy levels to some extent harmonise with MoGLSD: Beginners level (Local language), Intermediate level (Local Language), and Advanced level in basic English (Acaye & Omar-Akaca, 2012; Hasaba, 2012). However, the MoGLSD FAL programme levels have been slightly modified to diversify the training through development, use of primers as well as teachers’ guides which is relevant to different parts of the country (MoGLSD, 2007). Thus, the improved or modified training approach is indicative that FAL training levels inspires flexibility in the actual learning condition.
According to Olomukoro and Adelore (2015) study in Nigeria, the duration of the literacy programmes takes a period of three years, which include basic, intermediate and advanced level classes. However, Olomukoro & Adelore’s findings revealed that the advanced learning level is more effective, followed by the intermediate level, and finally by the beginners’ level in that order. Bataille (2016) pointed out that the method of functional literacy is understood as a new type of literacy work which seeks to facilitate acquiring a wealth of knowledge, skills and ability to improve upon the situation of people’s lives. Bataille’s viewpoint indicates that functional literacy training gives priority to content of what the learners are being trained for and that the advanced the level of women’s learning, the better the ability to improve their financial status and well-being.
FAL programme in Uganda has been divided into three levels or stages. Level one and two comprises of basic and proficiency learning respectively with nine months of study which is equivalent to180-226 contact hours and level three which was introduced in 2006 consists of 150-180 contact hours (Hasaba, 2012; Okech & Carr-Hill, 2001). FAL training at both level one two is conducted in the local language such as, Luo, Luganda, Runyoro-Rutooro, Runyankore- Rukiga, Lhukonzo and Ateso while at level the learners are trained using English language (Acaye & Omar-Akaca, 2012; Hasaba, 2012). The training content of FAL curriculum which include: a) agriculture, co-operative, marketing and trade, b) health, and c) gender issues, culture and civic consciousness emphasises on improving income status and eradicating poverty of the learners (Hasaba, 2012; Openjuru, 2007). FAL primer emphasises integration of basic reading, writing and numeracy with functional skills, embedded in real life situations that have relevance and significant for improving livelihood and well-being of adult learners (Maclachlan & Tett, 2006; MoGLSD, 2015).
As for the literacy Levels, a study by UNESCO (2008) in Uganda, pointed out that, limiting the provision of only three levels by the FAL programme was a disservice to many graduates that desired to upgrade but could not do so. According to Ugandan daily newspaper, a report on an article expressed the need to provide adult learners with a certificate which recognises competencies of their literacy, because this would provide them with the opportunity and motivation for further education or training (Bwambale, 2013). The above study resonates Freire (1970) argument that skills acquired from education or literacy training serve as a form of liberation. As suggested by Freire, literacy skills enable the learner, particularly, marginalised women to take necessary action to challenge and change obstacles to their development.
2.2. Literature Gap
The literature above indicates that FAL focuses on reading, writing, and basic numeracy skills. Nonetheless, reports that is focused on the different levels and perceptions about the relevance of the different skills acquired of the women’s ability to improve their economic status are less manifested in the literature. The current study fills these gaps by exploring the means of achievement at the different levels of FAL training and women’s ability to change their economic lives.
3. Method
This study used qualitative interpretive framework based on phenomenological method and case study research design, while focusing on FAL-trained women. The choice of a case study design was preferred because it generates a wealth of information on multiple sources of data or evidence and creates closeness to real life situations from the life experiences of participants.
3.1. Study Population and Sample Selection
The population of the study comprised 31 participants (20 FAL graduates, 6 case studies, 1 FGD and 4 Key Informants and a FAL instructor). This study used purposive sampling to select the study participants. Selection basing on FAL and non-FAL participants was to determine their insights on FAL training programme, whether and how women participants in Apac District were able to derive economic benefits from skills acquired from the training. The Key Informants comprised of: an official from MoGLSD at the position of Principal Literacy officer, and Community Development Officers - from both the district (DCDO) and the sub- county levels (CDO). These officials were the overall coordinators of FAL training programme in the entire district and at a sub-county level. In addition, a FAL Programme Instructor or trainer and mid-wife in Chawente sub-county was also purposively selected and interviewed.
3.2. Data Collection and Analysis
The methods used to collect data were: in depth interviews, key informant interviews, case studies, focused group discussion (FGD), observations and documentary analysis. Case studies were used to obtain a rich, detailed and contexualised information about different levels of skills acquired by the women from FAL. FGD was conducted to provide an open discussion on levels FAL training and women’s ability to improve their economic status. Observation of the home environment was essential for data collection on FAL trained women’s capacity to manage and change the economic status of their family and the community where they lived. Triangulation of methods enabled the researcher to check data collected using one method of another method which enriched the data collected in case study research deign.
This study followed Creswell (2007) suggestion of data management; generative; interpretive; and conclusions of the findings phases. Qualitative information was analysed through a detailed process that produced categories from the participants’ responses and observations noted. The study generated four key categories which include: reading, writing and counting; book-keeping skills, income generating projects and marketing products. Relevant literature from secondary sources was reviewed in order to supplement primary data.
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1. Levels of Functional Adult Literacy Skills and their Relevance in the Women’s Economic Development
This section focuses on the potential of FAL to improve women’s economic lives. Level I of FAL training is about basic reading, writing and counting.
Akelli, a 54-year-old woman and a peasant farmer was delighted at the training and this was her explanation:
| At level I of FAL, I learnt how to read by identifying the vowel sounds a, e, i, o, u. After the vowels, I was able to understand simple sentences, such as, “Cilo kelo peko” [Poor hygiene begets problems]. |
Akelli’s ability to read suggests that the skill can encourage women to respond to the print warning sign or signals, from instance, the problems associated with poor hygiene cited above. The aspect of identifying the sounds as well as understand simple sentences implies that reading is associated to listening and speaking. Akelli’s statement concur with Aderinoye (1997) argument that “reading provides a strong support for listening and speaking”. Freire and Macedo (1987) argue that literacy must be associated directly with people’s lived exeperiences in their community.
4.1.2. FAL level I- Writing
Atala, an 83-year-old woman and a peasant farmer could not contain her disbelief that after many years of being a non-literate, she had learnt how to write. She narrated thus:
| At my age, I was able to write after Level I of FAL. I was first trained on how to recognise the shapes and sound of vowels a, e, i, o, u. This was followed by how to write vowels, but on the ground before using a book. Later on, the trainer had to hold my hands to show me how to write accurately in the book… |
Atala’s statement, such as, “recognise the shapes and sounds” show how the women were taught to understand and practice the skill of writing. Her ability to write shows that writing is an essential component of communication and the women who write, communicate better than their counterparts who cannot write. The awareness about the skill of writing that Atala was being exposed to at this level is responsive to Freire (1970) agitation for conscientisation or awareness creation by the teacher to the learners in order for the learners to discover the world within which they live.
Atala also noted that “I first learnt to identify numbers in the sequence below 100, then how to count numbers using counting sticks. I was able to calculate after Level I of FAL”.
Akelli explained that “my level of counting is good after Level I of FAL. I first counted numbers using sticks, but it took me time to recognise numbers especially 8 and 3”.
The two women’s accounts (Atala and Akelli) all drive to one point of being introduced to numerical figures. Their voices suggest that the women are able to make the practical use of basic calculating in their everyday lives. Atala and Akelli’s voices concur with previous studies which have identified that adult’s need basic skill to function effectively in everyday context (Awofala & Blessing, 2014; Ginsburg, Manly, & Schmitt, 2006).
4.2. FAL Training Level II and Involvement in Income Generating Activities
The women believed that the integrated skills at level II of FAL training improved their skills for income generation in the activities that they engage in. This is illustrated in the case below:
Case 1. Alici’s testimony of improved ability to participate in income generating activities.
At level II of FAL, I learnt to add and subtract numbers. For instance, I was trained on how to calculate my products using a weighing scale. Before I weigh my products, I should ensure that the reading on the weighing scale is at zero. I should record the scale reading only when the produce is loaded, and then calculate how much I should be paid… Also, to avoid incurring losses in farming business, when acquiring input, I was able to understand, for instance, how much I am paying for labour and seeds or seedlings. And you know in the North we have to buy cassava stems. I am able to compute how much I have spent to buy those cuttings, such that, at the time t I am selling, I just value my produce using the quantity without calculating the process. Further, I learnt the skills of modern farming to enable me generate higher yields and better income. I was trained to plant cassava at one metre by one metre (1 X 1) spacing. Also, I learnt that too many cassava stems in the garden leads to poor growth, development and low yield of cassava tubers…
The above narrative demonstrates the value that this study’s participant attached to level II FAL skills. With reference to business, Alici emphasised that her ability and awareness to record and interpret the information has played a vital role in enhancing her book-keeping skills, for example, to determine the costs incurred and profits earned from her business. The aspect of Alici’s enhanced skills and knowledge regarding book-keeping skills point out that FAL skills attained had the prospects to improve upon women’s previous limited ability to gauge their financial gains from their sales. The above skills and ability acquired by her tally with Niraula (2011) analysis of Nepalese women who were had the ability to take note of their family income and expenditure and as a result manage their in turn, run their families better after being traned in literacy skills. In addition to reading, writing and numeracy at level II of FAL training, Alici’s knowledge is broadened with additional functional skills.
Several other women supplemented Alici’s expression above with specific skills on book-keeping and income generating. Ojony, one of the participants narrated her experience as follows: “After level II, I could compute arithmetic which is crucial to know the real income to my business. I was also able to count my money very well. I learnt how to identify if someone wanted to cheat me”.
While concurring with the women, a FAL trainer reiterated the women’s view that FAL level II training boosted their counting and record-keeping skills by underscoring that “FAL trained women were taught how to calculate income, for example, from the sale of beans. They had the ability to notice if they are being cheated. Likewise, they could carry out stock taking at home…”
An official from MoGLSD, at the position of Principal Literacy officer, in her 42 years added that,
| We train the women to record the price they have used to buy a product and when they set a resale price it has to be high but not the same as the buying price. They are now able to recall how much they have bought these products.` |
The above voices support Alici’s enhanced skills and knowledge regarding book-keeping skills. They point out that FAL skills attained had the prospects to improve upon women’s previous limited ability to account for the income generated. The women’s voice indicates that the skills of book-keeping acquired by women at level II of FAL have consequently enhanced their ability to set the price or to calculate the expenses they have incurred in the process of doing business. The women’s account imply that they have the potential of selling at a profit, reducing the cycle of poverty, able to save any money and accumulate wealth. The ability to improve financial status can push the women from improving their economic status to leading a successful life just because of their book-keeping skills. This argument is in line with Freire and Macedo (1987) as well Kabeer (2005) viewpoint that literacy skills improves women’s ability and economic development.
Several women asserted that because of integrated level II of FAL skills, they could utilise the information to boost their income as exemplified by the voices below:
Adule observed that,
| At level II, we learnt about modern farming which generates higher yield and more income. FAL has acted as an eye-opener. For example, I was trained on how to use fertilisers in my garden in order to get higher yields which is crucial to generate income. We could read the written instructions and use demonstration gardens on the proper use of fertilisers. … we were able to use the fertilisers on our own. |
Arao, a member in the group revealed that, “on modern farming, we were trained on the essential skills needed to generate better income. We learnt how to prepare the garden early enough and follow written instructions of planting seeds in rows as opposed to casting”.
In a related sentiment, a FAL trainer expressed that,
| At level II of FAL, I trained women on how to weave blankets and door mats which was in high demand by hotels with lodges in Apac. For example, the blanket cost depends on the size, that is, for double bed Shs. 80,000 and single Shs. 40,000. However, weaving required counting the design and colour to come out with standard blankets. |
The three women’s accounts (Adule, Arao and a FAL trainer) on the skills of boosting their income through modern farming and small business illustrate that FAL skills acquired, had the potential to improve on their former challenges of low incomes due to their non-literacy status. These accounts are indicative of how the practical skills acquired from FAL make women agents of economic change in their families and community.
From the various views of the participants, the level II of FAL training imparts integrated skills for increased economic well-being of the individual, family and community. The skills set includes ability to participate in community meetings, managing personal and home hygiene, prevention of diseases and basic management of ailments. Also, it includes fostering positive attitudinal changes towards education which leads to proper parental guidance and support to children in their educational endeavours. The participants gained skills in book-keeping which would help them in marketing their products. The women learnt the vital modern farming skills to optimise yields and to increase their income for improved daily livelihoods.
The women who completed levels I and II proceeded to level III- the final and advanced stage of FAL training in Uganda (DCDO, 2015). They were trained in analysing and combining main ideas previously learnt in Luo language at level II of FAL, particularly beginning with English alphabet A to Z, to constructing and reading one or two pages on topics, such as, “requirements of a well-designed kitchen” in simple English sentences. Learning the English alphabet was critical in FAL training because most official communication in Uganda is made in the English language.
4.4. FAL Training Level III and Involvement in Income Generating Activities
Level III of FAL primer is linked to listening, speaking, reading and writing ability in basic English language. Findings are presented and discussed under: book-keeping skills, income generating projects and marketing products.
4.4.1. Book-Keeping Skills
At level III the women had the chance to learn how to add and subtract large figures using English language as expressed by Nampa below:
| Since I weave baskets for sale, I have customers who do not understand the local language, for example, the foreign visitors. I can now communicate with them in English when selling my baskets, instead of getting an interpreter … For example, I can say in English that this is your balance of money… |
The DCDO in support of women’s views expressed that,
The participants’ views clearly demonstrate that through FAL level III training, women acquired skills of carefully accounting for their personal and family incomes and resources. Also, they demonstrate that the training enhanced their ability to respond to global trends where people of various backgrounds and nationalities are constantly travelling. By being able to interact with any strangers, the learners are able to widen their economic sphere of reach. In a way, it feels like they are liberated from confinement to their villages to be able to interact fruitfully with strangers in the open market place. The aspect of widened economic sphere and the liberation from confinement to only their communities resonate with Freire (1970) and Sen (1999) argument that the skills acquired from education or literacy training serve as a form of liberation and a process for development, particularly in the case of marginalised women.
4.4.2. Income Generating Projects
This study revealed that level III of FAL enhanced women’s ability to practically manage income generating projects. In practicing farming business, the women encountered written texts in English language which provided them guidelines on in what way to practice modern farming, generate better income and market their products.
For example, Otunyere shared her experience as below:
Otwila, while sharing a similar experience added that,
Otunyere and Otwila’s assertions demonstrate that Level III of FAL training made the women to be self-reliant and enhanced their farming abilities. They were able to interpret and understand technical specifications from factories and manufactures. This was especially useful as most manufacturing companies label their products in English. The women’s ability to use “fertiliser” andplant “the seeds” in specified spacing, means the learners are aware of increasing their productivity through modern farming. This implies that after level III of FAL, the women are in a better position to grasp issues related to modern farming outside their learning environment. This tallies with Freire (1970) proposal that literacy in English language opens the minds of women and enhances their ability to discover the world within which they live. However, Otunyere and Otwila’s comparable statements, “too advanced” and “interpretation” indicate that even though women completed advanced level III of FAL, their ability to understand instructions written in English language on modern farming is basic. The language literacy primer used in FAL training did not provide for skills of advanced English. This corresponds with Openjuru (2007) analysis report in Uganda that pieces of information provided by the extension workers on agriculture, such as cotton growing, are always written in English but “they are not in the format and language literacy learners are exposed to in the FAL classes”. This implies that the content of English language primer should involve the reading and writing that is sufficient for communication in women’s everyday lives.
4.5. Marketing Products
Women were trained regarding activities which would enable them sell products or services to people who do not understand the local language. This can be exemplified by Molly’s expression below:
| At level III of FAL, I learnt how to speak, listen, read and write in basic English. This help me in marketing my products to the foreign visitors who do not understand the local language. For example, I was trained in speaking, reading and writing words like ‘customers’, ‘selling’, ‘how much’, ‘buying’ and ‘market day’. I can now greet, or say ‘customer, you are welcome! I can respond to a customer’s question, for example, when he/she says ‘how much are you selling your bread?’; I can reply that ‘the bread is for Shs. 2,000’. Or reply that ’our market day is only once a week every Monday’, when a customer asks for the market day. |
In a similar way, the DCDO explained,
| The women are taught basic English vocabulary, such as the words ‘market’, ‘cassava’, ‘potatoes’, ‘how much’, ‘shillings’, ‘sugar’, ‘buying’ and ‘selling’, to help them in marketing their products. They are able to converse with the visitors and other shopkeepers in English on the kind of items they are selling or which they want to buy. Also, they can negotiate the price of the product. |
The voices indicate women’s ability to converse with foreign visitors and successfully market their products because of basic English language. If the women were exposed to advanced English language skills, they would have a better opportunity and wider market on all categories of customers which in turn enhances their ability to generate higher income. The above finding is consistent with the study by Hasaba (2012) which focused on Mpigi District in the Central Uganda, Jinja District and Kamuli District both in Eastern Uganda. Hasaba also found that high levels of literacy skills show an upward trend in financial status of the learners (Hasaba, 2012).
4.6. Implications for Theory, Policy or Practice
The implications have unfolded the benefits that accrue from the three levels of FAL skills training as a means to effectively participate in the economic development process. The study has identified that from level I of FAL skills training, the women acquired basic skills in reading writing and counting. Levels II-III were loaded with integrated skills and broader development issues on the use of modern farming to optimise yields and improve their income and computations to help women in marketing their products.
To conclude, this article is important to the study, it has a rich data and contributed to our knowledge regarding the content of different levels of FAL and perceptions about the relevance of the different skills acquired of the women’s economic lives. In turn, it expands our knowledge about the general area of FAL.
5. Recommendations
The findings which were based on facts or observed evidence from the participants revealed that the levels of skills acquired by FAL trained women enhanced their ability to improve their financial status and well-being. Therefore, there is need to prioritise, support and implement FAL training by MoGLSD which manages FAL training in at national level along with other departments, such as international donors and NGO’s. For example, MoGLSD can connect FAL to group learning components and vocational training.
There is need for awareness creation of the benefits of FAL training by MoGLSD. This will encourage particularly the marginalised non-literate women who were excluded from accessing formal education to enroll for the training.
5.1. Take Action
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